Conservation Agriculture With Trees in the West African Sahel- a Review
FAO CONSERVATION GUIDE 34
 | Agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan Africa |
| Tabular array of Contents |
by
J.-M. Boffa
The designations employed and the presentation of cloth in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion any on the role of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or surface area or of its regime, or apropos the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Chiliad-36
ISBN 92-5-104376-0
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any class or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should exist addressed to the Director, Information Division, Food and Agriculture System of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italia.
Foreword
The ecological and socio-economic importance of traditional agroforestry systems is now widely recognized. These country-use systems provide various useful products for household and national economies including food and medicinal products for humans and animals, woods for construction and fuel, and cash income. They contribute to the sustainability of soil food and water cycles and buffer climatic extremes. This is particularly true of agroforestry parklands, the most widespread agroforestry systems in the semi-arid zones of Due west Africa. Their social and ecological values also carry a high significance. This and the fact that they have been subject area to severe droughts and utilization pressure in the last decades take led to a growing interest in promoting their conservation and in further improving their management to increment the benefits they provide to farmers.
A bones challenge in the field of agroforestry is how to brand a tangible departure for farmers. The capacity of researchers, practitioners, conservationists and policy-makers to larn how to assist farmers to manage agroforestry parkland systems in more productive and sustainable means relies primarily on the availability of cogent, comprehensive, upward-to-engagement information, which reflects the complex nature of farmers' decisions. The initiative taken past FAO to contribute to a improve knowledge of concepts and the synthesis of experiences relating to Soudano-Sahelian parklands reflects the awareness of the Organization of the roles and functions of these systems.
Several meetings and publications have helped research and development efforts in this field. A specially significant event was the 1993 conference on Agroforestry Parklands of the Westward African Semi-Barren Lands organized by ICRAF in Ouagadougou, which brought together people from various disciplines and geographic areas. Other major initiatives include the contempo ICRAF/SALWA country reports on parklands in Senegal, Republic of mali, Burkina Faso and Niger, the 1991 ICRISAT-ICRAF workshop on Faidherbia albida in the West African semi-arid tropics in Niamey, CIRAD-Forêt'south works on F. albida including the 1998 monograph on the species, and the 1998 Working Meeting on shea nut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa, karité) at FAO. The contempo Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa monographs from the University of Wales at Bangor add together to this interesting drove. In lodge to give a renewed impetus to the work on these systems, FAO felt that the time was ripe to effort the production of a state of knowledge paper integrating a wide range of data on the biophysical, socio-economic and policy aspects relating to the understanding and sustainable direction of parkland species and systems. Jean-Marc Boffa, who has done extensive systems-oriented research, both biophysical and socio-economic on Vitellaria parklands in West Africa was an excellent candidate to be assigned the chore.
The project originated with and has been coordinated by El-Hadji Sène, Chief of Wood Conservation, Research and Education Service in the Forest Resources Sectionalisation of FAO's Woods Department. Susan Braatz, and then forestry officer in charge of agroforestry in the Forest Resource Division started off the procedure. Michelle Gauthier, replacing Susan Braatz, took up the final steps of the project. Lise Andreasen and Michel Malagnoux accept provided valuable comments and been involved in its follow-upward. FAO too commissioned half-dozen parkland experts, Edouard Bonkoungou, Denis Depommier, Marker Freudenberger, Amadou Maïga, Madické Niang, and Kathrin Schreckenberg, to bear out a thorough review of the document. Technical and re-create-editing was undertaken by Kathrin Schreckenberg from the Overseas Development Establish in London.
This study is part of the Conservation Guides series. It is targeted at all those with an interest in rural evolution, specially agroforestry practitioners and researchers, simply too policy- and decision-makers in the fields of agriculture, forestry and conservation in West Africa and beyond. I hope that information technology volition encourage more integration in approaches, a college caste of multidisciplinarity and more than practical solutions to rural needs. It will be particularly useful for people working in the Sahel and Sudan zones of West Africa, simply should too be of interest to a wide range of professionals working on agroforestry systems in other regions of the world outlining, as it does, many concepts underlying the value of trees within farming landscapes. This review is also relevant to FAO'southward involvement and involvement in the assessment of forest resources outside forests, which are of increasing importance as pressure on resources in natural wood and tree stands rises. More research cooperation in evolution and dialogue on parklands are still needed and FAO welcomes observations and comments from readers for inclusion in time to come related studies.
Jean Clément
Director
Woods Resources Sectionalization
Abstruse
This certificate attempts to present the current land of knowledge on agroforestry parkland systems. These systems, which for many local populations are very important for food security, income generation and environmental protection, are found primarily in the semi-arid and sub-humid zones of Westward Africa. The document first provides a thorough clarification of their distribution and diversity and discusses different ways of classifying them. It also presents data on current trends in parkland evolution and assesses determining factors. The certificate and so provides an in-depth analysis of biophysical tree-soil-crop interactions and the factors regulating them, and describes diverse improved parkland direction techniques. It goes on to examine the strength and limitations of institutional arrangements as well every bit the constraints imposed by Sahelian woods policies on the sustainable management of parklands. The production, utilise and marketing of parkland products is reviewed with an emphasis on their contribution to food security, local and national income too as social values. Overall costs and benefits of the exercise of parkland agroforestry are evaluated. In conclusion, the document identifies crucial research needs and promising avenues for promoting sustainable direction of parkland systems.
Illustrations
Permission to use Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Balanites aegyptiaca distribution maps was kindly provided past Bangor University and specific thanks go to Jeremy Williams for supplying the first 2 in the correct format. Thank you are also expressed to CIRAD-Forêt for permission to reproduce the map of Faidherbia albida in Western Senegal. Photographs were provided by Christelle Bernard, Jean-Marc Boffa, Pascal Danthu, Roberto Faidutti, Dominique Louppe, Peter Lovett, Eliot Masters, Sibidi Jean Ouédraogo, Régis Peltier and Kathrin Schreckenberg.
List of Acronyms
| AFRENA | Agroforestry Research Network for Africa |
| APROMA | Clan des produits à marché (Bruxelles, Belgique) |
| ARD | Associates in Rural Development (Vermont, Us) |
| CADEF | Comité d'action cascade le développement de Fogny (Sénégal) |
| CBE | Cocoa butter equivalent |
| CBRs | Cocoa butter replacers |
| CDR | Comité pour la défense de la révolution (Burkina Faso) |
| CEC | Cation substitution capacity |
| CFDT | Compagnie française de développement des textiles (France) |
| CIEPAC | Centre international d'éducation permanente et d'aménagement concerté (Senegal) |
| CIFOR | Eye for International Forestry Inquiry (Republic of indonesia) |
| CILSS | Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel / Comité interétats de lutte contre la sécheresse au Sahel |
| CINTEC | Compagnie internationale de négoce en transport et commerce (Burkina Faso) |
| CIRAD-SAR | Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement, Département systèmes agroalimentaires et ruraux (French republic) |
| CITEC | Compagnie industrielle du textile et du coton (Burkina Faso) |
| CNSF | Center national de semences forestières (Burkina Faso) |
| COVOL | Cooperative Office for Voluntary Organizations of Uganda (Uganda) |
| CTFT | Centre technique forestier tropical (today CIRAD-Forêt) (France) |
| dbh | Bore at breast height |
| DFSC | DANIDA Forest Seed Center (Humlebaek, Denmark) |
| ENEA | École nationale d'économie appliquée (Senegal) |
| FCFA | CFA franc (Communauté financière africaine) — currency used in French-speaking West Africa |
| GERES-CTFT | Groupe d'études sur la restauration des sols, Heart technique forestier tropical (France) |
| GIS | Geographic Information System |
| GRAAP | Groupe de recherche et d'appui pour fifty'auto-promotion paysanne |
| IAA | Indol-3-acerb acid |
| IBA | Indol-3-butyric acid |
| ICRAF | International Eye for Research in Agroforestry (Kenya) |
| ICRISAT | International Crops Research Found for the Semi-Arid Torrid zone (Niger) |
| ILCA | International Livestock Centre for Africa (Ethiopia) (today, International Livestock Enquiry Institute, Nairobi, Kenya) |
| IDRC | International Development Enquiry Centre (Canada) |
| IPGRI | International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (Italy) |
| IRHO | Oils and Oilseeds Enquiry Institute / Institut de recherche pour les huiles et oléagineux |
| ISRA | Institut sénégalais de recherche agricole (Sénégal) / Agricultural Research Institute of Senegal |
| IUFRO | International Marriage of Forestry Research Organizations (Republic of austria) |
| KES | Kenyan Shilling |
| LTC | Country Tenure Centre, University of Wisconsin-Madison (Us) |
| NAA | Napthalene acetic acid |
| NARS | National agronomical inquiry systems |
| NGO | Non governmental organization |
| NTFPs | Non-timber wood products |
| ODEPA | Oficina de Planificación Agrícola (Chile) |
| ORSTOM | Office de la recherche scientifique et technique outre-mer (today, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, IRD) (France) |
| PAR | Photosynthetically active radiation |
| PRSPR | Plan de recherche sur les systèmes de production ruraux (Mali) |
| R&D | Research and development |
| RDBF | République du Burkina Faso |
| RDM | République du Mali |
| RDN | République du Niger |
| RDS | République du Sénégal |
| SALWA | Semi-Arid Lowlands of Due west Africa |
| SOCADA | Société centrafricaine de développement agricole Central African Agricultural Development Agency |
| SODECOTON | Société de développement du coton (Republic of cameroon) |
| UNIFEM | United Nations Development Fund for Women |
| USAID | Us Agency for International Development |
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United nations
Rome, 1999 © FAO
Hyperlinks to non-FAO Internet sites exercise not imply any official endorsement of or responsibleness for the opinions, ideas, data or products presented at these locations, or guarantee the validity of the information provided. The sole purpose of links to non-FAO sites is to betoken further information available on related topics.
This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software. FAO declines all responsibility for whatever discrepancies that may be between the nowadays certificate and its original printed version.
Tabular array of Contents
FOREWORD
ABSTRACT
LIST OF ACRONYMS
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 AGROFORESTRY PARKLAND SYSTEMS
Parklands: A review of definitions and terminology
Parklands in West Africa
Areal extent
Label past dominant species
Faidherbia albida
Vitellaria paradoxa
Parkia biglobosa
Other of import parkland species
Factors used in establishing parkland typologies
Caste of human intervention
Functional classification
Spatial analysis
Parklands as a reflection of agrosystems and ethnicity
Summary
Affiliate two PARKLAND DYNAMICS
Changes in tree density over fourth dimension
Natural factors
Drought
Livestock
Pests
Economic and socio-cultural driving forces
Agronomical evolution policies
Role of trees in agricultural development models
Mechanization
Ingather introduction and development
Fertilizer policies
Demographic relations
Summary
Affiliate 3 BIOPHYSICAL FACTORS IN PARKLAND MANAGEMENT
Tree-soil relations
Influence on soil chemistry
Savanna tree species
Parkland tree species
Influence of copse on mineral content of understorey plants
Mechanisms of soil fertility comeback
Soil microbial action and structure
Atmospheric inputs
Nitrogen fixation
Dung degradation
Pre-existing soil fertility
Soil management practices
Food enrichment with increasing tree size
Parkland density and soil fertility
Nutrient redistribution versus enrichment
Hole-and-corner tree-crop interactions
Relations betwixt woody and herbaceous plants
Influence of trees on biomass productivity
Influence of trees on grain yields of crops
Faidherbia albida, a tree with contrary leaf phenology
Soil blazon, topographic position and fertilization
Distance from the tree
Influence on yield components
Influence on cotton
Influence on groundnuts
Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and other species with typical leaf phenology
Soil type
Influence on groundnuts and cotton fiber
Distinctions between tree species
Fundamental directions
Tree size
Parkland tree density and 'parkland effect'
Influence of trees on microclimate
Low-cal interception
Temperature
Evapotranspiration and soil moisture
Seasonal variations in soil moisture
Soil moisture variations according to tree size
Air humidity
Influence of trees on species limerick
Influence of trees on phenology
Summary
Affiliate four IMPROVED PARKLAND MANAGEMENT
Parkland management practices
Assisted tree regeneration
Planting of parkland species
Improved fallows
Fire protection
Silvicultural techniques
Pruning/debranching
Ringing
Coppicing and pollarding
Tree fertilization
Management techniques for improved crop production
Pruning and coppicing
Organic fertilization and mulching
Tree/crop associations
Genetic improvement of parkland species
Management and conservation of parkland genetic resource
Summary
CHAPTER five INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS IN PARKLAND MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Traditional tenure of agricultural country
Socio-economic organization and land allocation
Modes of admission to country
Land borrowing
Traditional versus country tenure security
Indigenous institutions regulating the direction of parkland resource
Regulating utilise by outsiders
Regulating use within communities
Changing traditions
Implications
Constraints and opportunities in traditional tree tenure
Traditional rights to parkland trees on inherited land
Tree-planting on borrowed land
Commoditization of state and trees
Women'southward rights
Implications of traditional tenure regimes
Impact of Country policy on parkland management
Forestry legislation in the Sahel
Ambiguities in forest codes
Inappropriate rules
Institutional structure
Farmers' perceptions of their rights
The neglect of pastoral practices in country policies
Implications for improved parkland management
Control of forest commons
Local participation in the fuelwood sector
Summary
Chapter vi PARKLAND Product LEVELS
Production of parkland trees
Fruit product
Foliage product
Gum production
Wood production
Summary
CHAPTER vii SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF PARKLANDS
Food security
Quantitative aspects of consumption
Qualitative contribution of parkland foods
Nutritional quality
Food variety
Seasonal food balance
Health care
Economic importance of parkland products at the local level
Diversity of products
Market place volume and income
Parkland products of international economic importance
Gum standard arabic
Vitellaria paradoxa
Full general description
Market constraints
International market opportunities
Social differentiation in NTFP activities
Collecting
Consumption
Processing
Marketing
Socio-cultural and spiritual values of parkland products
Analysis of costs and benefits of parkland production
Summary
CHAPTER eight CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The significance of agroforestry parklands
Dynamic systems
Parkland classification
Conservation and reproduction of agroforestry parklands
Biophysical interactions
A landscape with a future
REFERENCES
Boxes
| one.i | Methods for assessing parkland resource |
| ane.2 | Comparative tree growth in parkland and natural woodland conditions |
| i.three | Ethnic distinctions in land-employ patterns: the example of the Lobi, Bwa and Mossi in Burkina Faso |
| i.4 | Ethnic distinctions in state-employ patterns: the case of the Sérer and Wolof in Senegal |
| two.1 | Parkland regeneration in seasonally flooded areas |
| 2.2 | Processing and marketing incentives for the conservation and utilization of parkland trees: the case of Vitellaria in Uganda and Parkia in Senegal |
| iii.1 | Influence of parkland trees on soil texture |
| 3.2 | Pruning modifies Faidherbia albida's contrary foliation patterns |
| iii.3 | Experimental designs for assessing the influence of trees on crop product |
| iii.4 | How much do parkland tree canopies reduce sunlight intensity? |
| 3.v | Wind speed reduction in agroforestry parklands |
| iii.half-dozen | Rainfall interception by parkland trees |
| four.1 | Advances in the vegetative propagation of some parkland species |
| 4.2 | Is in that location a instance for improvement of Vitellaria paradoxa? |
| 4.three | Bones information needs for in situ conservation of intraspecific genetic diversity |
| 5.1 | Categories of rights comprising tree tenure |
| v.two | At what cost a let? |
| vii.1 | Opportunities for growth in the domestic marketplace for Vitellaria paradoxa |
| seven.2 | Cosmetics sector demand for Vitellaria paradoxa |
Figures
| 1.ane | Distribution and types of farmed parkland in western Senegal |
| ane.2 | Distribution of Faidherbia albida |
| 1.iii | Densities of Faidherbia albida in western Senegal |
| 1.4 | Flowering Vitellaria paradoxa, Sankpala, Ghana |
| 1.5 | Distribution of Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. paradoxa and Five. paradoxa subsp. nilotica in relation to hateful annual rainfall |
| one.6 | Distribution of Parkia biglobosa in relation to mean annual rainfall |
| 1.7 | Distribution of Adansonia digitata in Africa and neighbouring areas |
| 1.8 | Adansonia digitata parklands, Senegal |
| 1.ix | Distribution of Balanites aegyptiaca in relation to mean almanac rainfall. |
| 1.10 | Cordyla pinnata fruit, Nioro du Rip, Senegal |
| 1.xi | Borassus aethiopum parklands, Senegal |
| ane.12 | Faidherbia albida parklands around Dolekaha, Côte d'lvoire. Monospecific stands of F. albida are located nigh exclusively in a belt around the hamlet, while Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa parklands are located at a greater distance. Note sacred forest in lower correct hand corner. |
| 2.i | 'Construction' of a Borassus flabellifer parkland, Banfora, Burkina Faso |
| 2.2 | Peulh herders allow cattle browse pruned Faidherbia albida branches before piling and collecting the wood |
| ii.3 | Azadirachta indica invasion around Faidherbia albida trees in Dossi, Burkina Faso |
| two.4 | Fruit of Vitellaria paradoxa ssp. nilotica held past a farmer participant of the Shea (Yao) project in Lira, northern Uganda |
| 2.v | The COVOL (Cooperative Role for Voluntary Organizations of Uganda) paw printing for extracting shea oil, Lira, Uganda |
| 2.vi | Oxen traction for sowing cotton in Parkia biglobosa parklands, Dolekaha, Côte d'lvoire |
| 2.seven | Mechanized cultivation in Vitellaria paradoxa parklands, Bole, Ghana. Annotation lack of woody regeneration. |
| 3.1 | Vitellaria paradoxa (right) and Parkia biglobosa (left) parkland in the Bassila region of Benin |
| 3.ii | Crop and clearing residues are gathered and burned before the next agricultural season |
| 3.3 | Cattle grazing on Prosopis africana pods in cotton fields, Holom, northern Republic of cameroon |
| three.4 | Faidherbia albida parklands are a significant source of fuelwood, especially where trees are regularly pruned |
| three.5 | Vitellaria paradoxa parkland in the dry season, Thiougou, southern Burkina Faso |
| 4.1 | Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. nilotica regeneration being actively protected in a firm field, Adwari, Uganda |
| four.2 | Expansion of Borassus aethiopum parkland through active regeneration (foreground) |
| 4.3 | Naturally regenerated stand of Vitellaria paradoxa following protection from burn down and tillage, Tolon, Ghana |
| 4.4 | Lopping of Faidherbia albida, Ngaparou, Senegal |
| 4.5 | Pollarded Azadirachta indica among Faidherbia albida trees in village fields of Dissin, Yoba Province, Burkina Faso |
| 4.half dozen | Faidherbia albida parkland with substratum of Ziziphus mauritiana copse, Yagoua, Cameroon |
| 4.7 | Manure or compost is heaped and will be spread uniformly throughout the fields |
| 4.8 | Association of a local tuber crop, 'fabirama', with a Parkia biglobosa canopy, Thiougou, Burkina Faso |
| iv.9 | Rooted hardwood cutting of Vitellaria paradoxa with new flower bud formation |
| 4.10 | 'Timber' variety of Vitellaria paradoxa growing in cleared woodland, Bomburi, Republic of ghana |
| 4.11 | 'Erect' variety of Vitellaria paradoxa in farmed parklands, Sawla, Republic of ghana |
| 4.12 | 'Dwarf' multifariousness of Vitellaria paradoxa with fruit in farmed parklands, Tolon, Ghana |
| 4.13 | Bombax costatum branches trimmed to harvest the flowers for employ in a highly appreciated sauce, with negative consequences for regeneration |
| 4.fourteen | Adansonia digitata blossom visited by a bat. Bats play a significant function in the pollination of several parkland species |
| v.1 | The fibres extracted by these young women from palm petioles will be used to make ropes and baskets |
| five.2 | Harvesting of young leaves from a small Adansonia digitata tree, Burkina Faso |
| five.3 | Harvesting pods of Parkia biglobosa, Benin |
| v.4 | Homo collecting Borassus aethiopum fruit |
| 5.5 | Collecting Borassus aethiopum sap to make wine |
| 5.six | A woodworker finishes a traditional mortar used for pounding various foods. Wood for such items ofttimes comes from agroforestry parklands |
| five.7 | Women bringing abode fuelwood |
| 5.8 | Cattle herded through Faidherbia albida parklands |
| 5.9 | Canoe hollowed out from a Prosopis africana body, Bec de Canard, Cameroon |
| v.10 | Blacksmiths using charcoal from Prosopis africana, Maroua, Cameroon |
| six.1 | Weighing pod product of a single Parkia biglobosa tree, Thiougou, Burkina Faso |
| vi.two | Juicy fruit of Lannea microcarpa are an energy-rich snack f or children in the dry season, Thiougou, Burkina Faso |
| 6.3 | Borassus aethiopum leaves are nerveless for employ in basket-making |
| 6.four | Gum standard arabic oozing from an Acacia senegal tree, Barkedji, Senegal |
| vi.5 | Wood gathered to build a drying rack for millet, Holom, northern Cameroon |
| 7.one | Parkia biglobosa products: fermented 'soumbala' (front), cleaned seeds (middle), yellow lurid (back) |
| vii.2 | Adansonia digitata fruit: the pulp is used as a flavouring in a diversity of cool and hot drinks |
| 7.three | Flowers and calyces of Bombax costatum used for making a glutinous red sauce |
| 7.iv | Tamarind pods and balls of pods with the husks removed for storage and sale |
| 7.v | Diverse commercial items manufactured past Phycos, a local company in Burkina Faso specializing in corrective products made from Vitellaria butter |
| 7.vi | While other ethnic groups sun-dry out Vitellaria nuts, the Otamari in Diepani, Republic of benin, use ovens. The method requires a lot of fuelwood but allows women to exit the nuts almost unattended for the 2-three days required. |
| 7.7 | A 'dero', the traditional local granary with walls made of a dried clay and straw mixture, provides excellent long-term storage for Vitellaria basics in Lira, Republic of uganda |
| 7.8 | After shelling, Vitellaria kernels are rapidly roasted and and then coarsely pounded (foreground). The product is then ground to produce a chocolate-like paste (groundwork), Thiougou, Burkina Faso. The paste volition then be mixed vigorously with beginning hot and then cold water to separate out the solid white fat. |
| 7.nine | The white Vitellaria fat is washed several times and then shaped into dissimilar forms, depending on the region. The Peulh near Bassila, Benin, utilise pocket-sized calebashes to make butter pats, sold here together with some whole Vitellaria fruit gathered on the way to market. |
| 7.x | The social importance of trees is non always recognized. Meetings often take place in the shade of large, conspicuous hamlet trees. |
| 7.11 | Cool shady atmospheric condition provided by big tree canopies are ideal for rural Sahelian markets |
| vii.12 | Marketing traditional lather made from palm kernel oil and ash, Bassila, Benin |
| 7.13 | Marketing Faidherbia albida pods in Mopti, Mali |
| seven.xiv | Young girl selling Adansonia digitata leaves |
| 7.15 | Boiled Borassus aethiopum seedlings for sale |
Tables
| 1.1 | Scientific, English and French names of mutual parkland trees |
| ane.2 | Ascendant species in West African parklands by climatic zone |
| 1.3 | Densities of Faidherbia albida in agroforestry parklands |
| 1.4 | Densities of Vitellaria paradoxa in agroforestry parklands |
| ane.five | Densities of Parkia biglobosa in agroforestry parklands |
| 1.half dozen | Main productive functions fulfilled past agroforestry parklands |
| 3.1 | Comeback (%) of soil nutrient content under Faidherbia albida canopies compared to controls in the open |
| 3.2 | Crop yields under and outside Faidherbia albida canopies |
| iii.three | Touch of Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa on sub-canopy ingather yields (%) |
| 6.1 | Fruit production in Vitellaria paradoxa |
| 6.2 | Pod production in pruned and unpruned Faidherbia albida copse |
| 7.1 | Food value of some not-timber parkland products |
| 7.two | Products and uses of common parkland trees |
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